Table 2 Baseline characteristics of the study participants according to phenotype obesity (n = 8,360)

Age (year)

46.36 ± 8.23

45.98 ± 7.51

49.98 ± 8.40

49.12 ± 7.77

< 0.001

Sex

Men

1959 (49.61)

253 (21.85)

1045 (49.55)

312 (27.27)

< 0.001

Women

1990 (50.39)

905 (78.15)

1064 (50.45)

832 (72.73)

Socioeconomic status

Low

1373 (34.77)

374 (32.30)

717 (34.00)

407 (35.58)

0.008

Moderate

1287 (32.59)

404 (34.89)

684 (32.43)

421 (36.80)

High

1289 (32.64)

380 (32.82)

708 (33.57)

316 (27.62)

Physical activity

Low

1082 (27.40)

355 (30.66)

700 (33.19)

409 (35.75)

< 0.001

Moderate

1858 (47.05)

642 (55.44)

1010 (47.89)

608 (53.15)

High

1009 (25.55)

161 (13.90)

399 (18.92)

127 (11.10)

Smoking status

Never

3228 (82.14)

1044 (90.63)

1667 (79.42)

988 (86.74)

< 0.001

Current smoker

412 (10.48)

46 (3.99)

232 (11.05)

58 (5.09)

Former smoker

290 (7.38)

62 (5.38)

200 (9.53)

93 (8.17)

Comorbidity

Dyslipidemia

980 (24.82)

278 (24.01)

1615 (76.58)

781 (68.27)

< 0.001

T2DM

66 (8.92)

31 (4.19)

387 (52.30)

256 (34.59)

< 0.001

CVD

258 (17.39)

121 (8.15)

671 (45.22)

434 (29.25)

< 0.001

Hypertension

224 (16.51)

68 (5.01)

647 (47.68)

418 (30.80)

< 0.001

Renal failure

24 (0.61)

7 (0.60)

34 (1.61)

20 (1.75)

< 0.001

Anthropometric indices

BMI (kg/m²)

25.10 ± 2.87

33.12 ± 3.10

26.48 ± 2.33

33.36 ± 3.29

< 0.001

WHR

0.92 ± 0.05

0.99 ± 0.05

0.94 ± 0.05

0.99 ± 0.06

< 0.001

BFM (kg)

20.55 ± 6.32

36.69 ± 6.77

23.05 ± 5.27

36.70 ± 7.31

< 0.001

VFA (cm²)

99.11 ± 37.69

183.61 ± 33.34

112.91 ± 33.490

182.61 ± 35.03

< 0.001

Liver enzymes

AST (mg/dl)

21.14 ± 8.34

20.42 ± 10.82

21.81 ± 8.47

21.21 ± 8.48

< 0.001

ALT (mg/dl)

22.81 ± 12.93

24.01 ± 15.53

26.73 ± 15.46

26.40 ± 14.24

0.001

GGT (mg/dl)

21.49 ± 17.10

23.33 ± 18.77

28.19 ± 23.04

28.27 ± 20.78

< 0.001

Dietary intake

Energy intake (Kcal/day)

2538.45 ± 738.18

2515.82 ± 735.36

2469.36 ± 757.90

2469.72 ± 729.92

0.004

Whole grains (gr/day)

9.43 ± 0.20

10.25 ± 0.36

10.37 ± 0.27

10.93 ± 0.36

0.006

Refined grains (gr/day)

511.44 ± 2.34

480.36 ± 4.33

502.13 ± 3.21

492.29 ± 4.36

< 0.001

Dairy (gr/day)

418.38 ± 5.50

476.34 ± 10.15

451.66 ± 7.53

471.31 ± 10.22

< 0.001

Vegetables (gr/day)

442.84 ± 3.73

499.20 ± 6.89

480.01 ± 5.11

511.91 ± 6.94

< 0.001

Fruits (gr/day)

251.21 ± 2.99

306.96 ± 5.52

269.01 ± 4.10

304.99 ± 5.55

< 0.001

Meat (gr/day)

71.71 ± 0.75

70.04 ± 1.38

76.31 ± 1.02

74.05 ± 1.39

0.004

Egg (gr/day)

21.21 ± 0.28

17.84 ± 0.52

18.98 ± 0.39

17.13 ± 0.53

< 0.001

Legumes (gr/day)

32.61 ± 0.44

31.63 ± 0.81

33.51 ± 0.60

31.98 ± 0.82

0.236

Sweets and desserts (gr/day)

59.38 ± 0.55

56.73 ± 1.02

53.18 ± 0.76

50.26 ± 1.03

< 0.001

Soft drinks (gr/day)

35.34 ± 0.82

34.59 ± 1.52

34.86 ± 1.13

33.54 ± 1.52

0.774

Hydrogenated fats (gr/day)

19.90 ± 0.29

20.44 ± 0.54

18.37 ± 0.40

18.39 ± 0.54

0.008

Fatty acid total saturated (gr/day)

28.10 ± 0.15

29.03 ± 0.27

27.61 ± 0.20

27.62 ± 0.27

0.001

Fatty acid total trans (gr/day)

0.27 ± 0.01

0.28 ± 0.01

0.26 ± 0.02

0.25 ± 0.01

0.201

Cholesterol (gr/day)

271.63 ± 1.65

264.22 ± 3.05

269.62 ± 2.26

260.42 ± 3.10

0.005

Butter (gr/day)

3.75 ± 0.07

3.64 ± 0.13

3.27 ± 0.10

3.05 ± 0.13

0.001

Salt (gr/day)

4.26 ± 0.04

4.44 ± 0.08

4.06 ± 0.06

4.12 ± 0.08

0.007

Sugar (gr/day)

136.65 ± 0.60

144.21 ± 1.10

136.42 ± 0.82

140.28 ± 1.10

0.001