Table 1 Baseline characteristics of participants

Age, years

60.69 (13.34)

59.76 (13.36)

62.83 (13.06)

0.003

60.05 (13.67)

58.71 (13.73)

63.49 (12.93)

< 0.001

Age groups

0.202

0.001

 < 60 years

323 (40.83)

234 (42.39)

89 (37.24)

317 (42.44)

249 (46.28)

68 (32.54)

 ≥ 60 years

468 (59.17)

318 (57.61)

150 (62.76)

430 (57.56)

289 (53.72)

141 (67.46)

Race

0.450

0.251

 Non-Hispanic White

280 (35.40)

205 (37.14)

75 (31.38)

262 (35.07)

183 (34.01)

79 (37.80)

 Non-Hispanic Black

216 (27.31)

147 (26.63)

69 (28.87)

214 (28.65)

148 (27.51)

66 (31.58)

 Mexican-American

108 (13.65)

75 (13.59)

33 (13.81)

101 (13.52)

78 (14.50)

23 (11.00)

 Other

187 (23.64)

125 (22.64)

62 (25.94)

170 (22.76)

129 (23.98)

41 (19.62)

Marital status

0.443

0.042

 Married

517 (65.36)

366 (66.30)

151 (63.18)

332 (44.44)

252 (46.84)

80 (38.28)

 Other

274 (34.64)

186 (33.70)

88 (36.82)

415 (55.56)

286 (53.16)

129 (61.72)

Education level

0.136

0.360

 Below high school

233 (29.46)

151 (27.36)

82 (34.31)

239 (31.99)

164 (30.48)

75 (35.89)

 High school

172 (21.74)

122 (22.10)

50 (20.92)

185 (24.77)

137 (25.46)

48 (22.97)

 Above high school

386 (48.80)

279 (50.54)

107 (44.77)

323 (43.24)

237 (44.05)

86 (41.15)

Smoking status

0.051

0.037

 Never

343 (43.36)

252 (45.65)

91 (38.08)

448 (59.97)

338 (62.83)

110 (52.63)

 Former

310 (39.19)

214 (38.77)

96 (40.17)

190 (25.44)

128 (23.79)

62 (29.67)

 Now

138 (17.45)

86 (15.58)

52 (21.76)

109 (14.59)

72 (13.38)

37 (17.70)

Drinking status

0.946

0.050

 Never

79 (9.99)

54 (9.78)

25 (10.46)

206 (27.58)

153 (28.44)

53 (25.36)

 Former

236 (29.84)

166 (30.07)

70 (29.29)

176 (23.56)

114 (21.19)

62 (29.67)

 Now

476 (60.18)

332 (60.14)

144 (60.25)

365 (48.86)

271 (50.37)

94 (44.98)

BMI, kg/m²

31.34 (6.81)

31.27 (6.81)

31.53 (6.82)

0.622

33.51 (8.18)

33.82 (8.22)

32.73 (8.03)

0. 102

BMI groups

0.011

0.169

 < 25 kg/m²

112 (14.16)

71 (12.86)

41 (17.15)

104 (13.92)

67 (12.45)

37 (17.70)

 25–30 kg/m²

281 (35.52)

214 (38.77)

67 (28.03)

170 (22.76)

123 (22.86)

47 (22.49)

 ≥ 30 kg/m²

398 (50.32)

267 (48.37)

131 (54.81)

473 (63.32)

348 (64.68)

125 (59.81)

HbA1c, %

7.29 (1.71)

7.12 (1.61)

7.68 (1.89)

< 0.001

7.20 (1.83)

7.02 (1.66)

7.66 (2.13)

< 0.001

HbA1c

< 0.001

< 0.001

 < 7%

455 (57.52)

346 (62.68)

109 (45.61)

453 (60.64)

349 (64.87)

104 (49.76)

 ≥ 7%

336 (42.48)

206 (37.32)

130 (54.39)

294 (39.36)

189 (35.13)

105 (50.24)

Diabetes duration

< 0.001

< 0.001

 0–3 years

341 (43.11)

272 (49.28)

69 (28.87)

340 (45.52)

271 (50.37)

69 (33.01)

 3–10 years

223 (28.19)

150 (27.17)

73 (30.54)

194 (25.97)

151 (28.07)

43 (20.57)

 > 10 years

227 (28.70)

130 (23.55)

97 (40.59)

213 (28.51)

116 (21.56)

97 (46.41)

Hypertension

< 0.001

< 0.001

 No

247 (31.23)

202 (36.59)

45 (18.83)

207 (27.71)

175 (32.53)

32 (15.31)

 Yes

544 (68.77)

350 (63.41)

194 (81.17)

540 (72.29)

363 (67.47)

177 (84.69)

GS, kg

41.48 (9.50)

42.62 (9.15)

38.85 (9.79)

< 0.001

26.81 (6.38)

27.55 (6.35)

24.91 (6.08)

< 0.001

GS, groups

< 0.001

< 0.001

 Q1

202 (25.54)

112 (20.29)

90 (37.66)

189 (25.30)

112 (20.82)

77 (36.84)

 Q2

198 (25.03)

141 (25.54)

57 (23.85)

189 (25.30)

135 (25.09)

54 (25.84)

 Q3

194 (24.53)

145 (26.27)

49 (20.50)

187 (25.03)

140 (26.02)

47 (22.49)

 Q4

197 (24.91)

154 (27.90)

43 (17.99)

182 (24.36)

151 (28.07)

31 (14.83)